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The ecological impact of colonialism and politics in the Third World during the nineteenth and twentieth
Introduction
Colonialism is a system in which a state claims sovereignty over the territory and people outside its borders, or a system of state assumes the right of people to impose their will on another (Brett, 1973). During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the rich, the powerful, including Great Britain and other European countries, belonging to the colonies of the Third World. "Third World" originally referred to countries that do not belong to democracy, the Western industrialized countries (the first) or the industrialization of the socialist state Soviet bloc countries (the Second World Assembly) (Chilton, 2004). This test uses specific examples from third world to summarize the major impacts of colonialism of the nineteenth and twentieth century when the colonial powers have reached their peak. It focuses on European colonialism in Africa and India.
A point of view development is that at the individual level, it implies increased skill and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, accountability and welfare (Rodney, 1972) European colonial powers made by economic growth through the exploitation of natural resources and human settlements. Europe and Africa have faced in the respective stages of development and underdevelopment, the latter term defined by the Europeans regarding the lack of progress in Africa in the skills required to support an advanced material culture (Brett, 1973).
It can be argued that colonialism had positive effects. For example, the British irrigation systems bodies in India: in 1890 about 44,000 miles of canals and distributaries quarter of the total irrigated area of India's crops, increasing agricultural production. But also had negative effects such as waterlogging and salinization of the channels and a higher prevalence of malaria with more mosquito breeding areas (Arnold, 1996).
Colonialism was supposed also beneficial because they provide the infrastructure for economic development and some social services. However, this test argues that the effects of colonialism were overwhelmingly negative and infrastructure were provided solely to allow the colonial power to exploit natural resources and labor of the colony.
The main environmental impacts of colonialism concern:
Lands and Forests: deforestation and cash crops;
Extraction and mining, through changes in the landscape and economic systems;
The introduction of animal diseases and human settlers.
The major political impacts relate to:
The destruction of local institutions;
Coercive and repressive state to state;
Development of artificial national boundaries;
The displacement of local populations
The examples show that the effects are closely related. political ecology is that politics and the environment are connected (Bryant, 1998), and the celebration will bring together the main points.
Ecological Impacts
Deforestation and commercial crops
The British colonial exploitation of timber for industrial revolution British. The wood was used for shipbuilding, to feed the steam engines in the industry and transport, and railway sleepers for the rail network each colonial India in 1910, had over 32,000 miles of rail [song] (Arnold and Guha, 1995). Forests have been cleared for the railroads, which in turn enabled the record in the deepest areas. The deforested areas were converted into agricultural land for income. Ecologically deforestation caused soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, problems of salinization, depletion of water tables, abandoned wells, the drying or settling channel drainage, and the spread of malaria (Gadgil and Guha, 1992).
In pre-colonial era, under the Mongols, are non-wood products such as pepper, cardamom and ivory that were collected through a centralized state control. Under British rule came to emphasize the "scientific management" of wood species such as teak, pine and deodar (Gadgil and Guha, 1992, Bawa 1992). While Imperial foresters seeking to eliminate competing species preferred species, tried to restrict alternative forest practices that could "interfere with official logging and reclamation operations – Culture Goodwill is usually a priority "(Gadgil and Guha, 1992).
In Madagascar, the French colonialism in 1896 created the deforestation growing coffee culture in the traditional rice harvest, when it became clear that [the producers] French capable of generating huge profits from it. This has led to shortages Rice, 1911. The net effect is an increase of shifting cultivation that people have tried to grow rice to feed themselves and coffee as a cash crop. Forests have been increasingly fragmented and destroyed by burning or cutting (Ward, 2002). The State prohibits shifting cultivation in 1909, which requires "a good management forest resources "to reduce deforestation and to allocate land for rice, then opened the island's forests to logging concessions in 1921 (1), increasing deforestation and illegal logging. A combination of government policies at the expense meant that "approximately 70% of the primary forest has been destroyed in the years between 1895 and 1925 30 (1).
As a result of colonial policies, Madagascar has become a food importer. Local people have been displaced and the state took control over resources. Coffee plantations are known for being the erosion rate almost two times higher than subsistence plots. The fertile land was cleared and replaced by a monoculture persistently unfit for almost all plants and animals of the forest dwellers before (Ward, 2002).
Nigeria, the British forced the local population in the export of palm oil in Britain for use as a lubricant for railways, to make soap, fat cooking products and pharmaceuticals. In 1900, palm oil constitutes 89% of total exports of Nigeria (Aghalino, 2000). The resulting decrease industry due to competition from rubber and cocoa and palm oil from other colonies, undermined livelihoods.
Extraction and Mining:
diamond mining in South Africa has been profitable for Europe. The colony always a slave labor to dig diamonds type, and value-added measures, such as cutting and polishing of diamonds, have been carried out by a minority of whites in South Africa and Europe (Rodney, 1972). Mining was hard work and split families, women and children are not supported leaving the reserves of the government. Indigenous peoples' land has resulted in massive displacement of people (Frick, 2002). Key Ecological impacts including large-scale destruction of the land to erosion, siltation, deforestation, desertification and flattening mountains. Mining has also caused contamination of soils and rivers with toxic chemicals used in industry and air pollution by dust from tractors and transport.
Diseases (human and animal):
The nineteenth century introduced the steam engine allowed the shipment of live cattle by rail and sea in the figures previously impossible (Daszak et al., 2000). In Africa, plague vaccine, a European livestock disease, killed between 90% and 95% of all cattle in Africa between 1889 and early 1900, also kill other animals grazing. depend on livestock African tribes have lost their livelihoods. According to an estimate two-thirds of the population died Maasai in Tanzania due to rinderpest (Nelson, 2002).
The absence of grazing animals has also resulted in the growth of grassland vegetation, changes in the landscape to better respond to the tse-tse fly. In Uganda, about 200,000 people died between 1902 and 1906 the spread of sleeping sickness by hordes of new tsetse flies (Nelson, 2002). In South Africa, livestock diseases have been accompanied by an epidemic of pulmonary disease, which struck in the middle of the nineteenth century (Ross, 1999). settlers also brought smallpox, to which Africans had no natural immunity (Nelson, 2002). Diseases, both animal and human, caused the death and impoverishment of local populations.
Political implications
Destruction of local institutions:
In many cases, pre-colonial societies had acquired the skills and capital base, and develop their own way. India, for example, was a major player in the world export market for textiles, but has lost most of its domestic and export markets under the British colonialism. Britain has increased its duty to protect Indian textiles to a massive 85% in 1813, with a big impact the Indian market. In 1815, total
the value of exported goods Indian cotton in Great Britain a total of £ 1.3 million in value, falling to just £ 100,000 in 1832. For the protection and establishment of holding (British) East India Trading Company, Britain has destroyed the Indian textile market and developed its own textile industry thrives (2).
While India produces about 25% of world industrial output in 1750, this figure was reduced to only 2% in 1900. This de-industrialization, which can be defined as a hand movement work in manufacturing and agriculture, has been accompanied by the creation of a more rural poor in India (Clingingsmith and Williamson, 2004). In 1810, 40% of Indians lived in cities in 1900, only 10 percent do (D'Amato, 2003). Contrary to the myths of colonialism is a moment of "progress heroic through westernization "today] the [true story should be a recovery (Cronon, 1983).
Artificial national borders:
In 1914, the borders of African states emerging independence in the 1960s had already established on European maps (Clapham, ND). restricted limits of the pastoral communities and has created conflicts between ethnic groups. According to one estimate, property Asiwaju (1985), no fewer than 177 groups African cultural and ethnic boundaries are spread, which represents an average of 43% of the population of your country (Englebert, 2001).
In Sudan, northern Arabic-speaking Muslims had considered the southern non-Muslim slaves as sources. The creation of the Sudan was one of the two groups, exacerbating conflicts and provoke a civil war. In other countries there have been conflicts over resources in border regions. For example, armed clashes between Burkina and Mali in 1971 and 1985 during Agacher Banda, who was said to contain oil (Englebert, 2001). There are claims on Ethiopia and Kenya inhabited by ethnic Somalis (Boyd, 1979). Thus, colonialism, through the establishment of inappropriate boundaries established (ongoing) political instability.
Rule coercive colonial state:
Colonial states exploited the local population by imposing high taxes. The average tax burden in India, for example, twice that of contemporary England, though the average income was 15 times higher than this time. The tax burden has not been compensated for the costs of infrastructure or human development (Murshed, 2003).
Conclusion
Examples of the third world have demonstrated the interdependence of ecological and political impacts. For example, the colonial Indian Railways has allowed massive deforestation and the transmission of the disease has increased, for example, the spread of bubonic plague in the 1890s and the flu in 1918-19 (Arnold, 1996). These ecological impacts displaced and killed the indigenous peoples and gave the state control over resources, allowing greater exploitation in the service of a political agenda.
The legacy of colonialism rest. In India, for example, the State has organized the system of "scientific forestry", established under British rule, has remained unanswered since independence in 1947, to serve political and economic interests of the colonial and postcolonial as (Bryant, 1997), have the resources to the detriment of local populations.
The addictive power of colonialism. In the 1980s, neoliberal structural adjustment driven programs "independent" Third World countries, based on the idea that markets work better. Trade is uneven. The rich countries subsidize their own producers and supply chains are small producers compete to sell their products at low prices to rich countries, which are derived from value added (Vorley, 2003).
Colonialism was an era of monopoly capitalism, driven by operating the main resources in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as colonial powers industrialized. Europe has established plantations of cash crops, mining and transportation systems to facilitate the extraction of resources; lanes and roads are designed to the export of commodities, and not for the interdependence and economic development in the colonies. People have been forced by the tax and forced to work in enterprises in colonial times
were overworked and undernourished, agriculture has suffered, food production has declined, and hunger, famine and disease control. (Podur, 2002)
many inequalities in the world can be attributed to colonialism. In addition to the unequal exchange, the creation of state boundaries and created a conflict between ethnic groups, and unstable political system of the third world. The magnitude of the unsustainable exploitation of the environment could not be controlled by newly industrializing nations have in many cases economically low. third world countries are less able to cope with the resulting environmental problems, but the degree of environmental impact resulting from the practices and colonial exploitation, which affect all humanity. ancient powers Colonial can never escape responsibility for what the world has become.
References
Magazines and books
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Websites:
(1) ~ Ray http://honors.rit.edu/ / Seniorseminar / index.php / colonialism Accessed 01 February 2005
(2)
http://www.angelfire.com/mac/egmatthews/worldinfo/problems/disputed.html Retrieved on February 7, 2005
(3)
http://www.twnside.org.sg/title/mining-cn.htm
Retrieved on February 7, 2005
(4)
colonization http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/85/general.html # Source: WRM Bulletin N º 66, January 2003 Accessed February 7, 2005
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